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Third, patient access should be equated with the availability of reimbursement rather than with device approval, because broad patient access to a new device doesn't occur until reimbursement by a national or third-party payer is available. Previous comparisons of the U.S. and European systems have used the approval date to measure process duration, but innovative, high-risk devices don't reach a market where most patients can benefit from them immediately after gaining regulatory approval, though they may be accessible to patients who can afford to pay out of pocket. Rather, there is a second level of review through which public or private insurers decide whether and at what price they will pay for a device. Generally, public systems take longer than private insurers to make reimbursement decisions, and significantly more Europeans than Americans have public insurance. Two thirds of the U.S. population is covered by private health insurance, whereas only a fifth receives publicly funded reimbursement, primarily administered by the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS).
Clinicians must consider the arrhythmogenic potential not only of azithromycin but also of potential alternative antibacterial drugs. An earlier study showed an association between the use of erythromycin and sudden cardiac death, augmented by concomitant use of inhibitors of the cytochrome P-450 3A isozymes that metabolize erythromycin.4 Labels for erythromycin and clarithromycin include warnings regarding QT-interval prolongation and arrhythmias. All labels for fluoroquinolone products similarly have warnings regarding QT-interval prolongation, and grepafloxacin was withdrawn from the market because of that risk. A recent observational study of elderly residents of Quebec, Canada, showed an association between outpatient fluoroquinolone use and serious arrhythmias (as defined by hospital discharge diagnoses of ventricular arrhythmia or sudden or unattended death).5 And although Ray et al. found the risk of cardiovascular death to be greater with azithromycin than with ciprofloxacin, they found the risk with levofloxacin similar to that with azithromycin. The authors interpreted this similarity as evidence that levofloxacin may be proarrhythmic; however, levofloxacin was not implicated as proarrhythmic in the Canadian study.
An important finding of the study was a reduced incidence of ROP in the lower oxygen-saturation range. However, contrary to what was known at the time, the study also showed a slightly but significantly increased incidence of death — 19.9% versus 16.2% (P=0.04) — among infants assigned to the lower as compared with the upper range. As a result, last year the AAP amended its guidelines, citing SUPPORT, and physicians treating very premature infants are starting to use higher saturation rates to reduce the risk of death, even with the potentially higher risk of ROP at these levels. Studies such as SUPPORT that compare two alternatives, both within current standard clinical practice, often lead to critical improvements in medical care.
But questions remain about the efficacy of fines and corporate integrity agreements in deterring corporate misbehavior. The 2012 fines against Abbott Laboratories and GSK represent a modest percentage of those companies' revenue.1 Companies might well view such fines as merely a cost of doing business — a quite small percentage of their global revenue and often a manageable percentage of the revenue received from the particular product under scrutiny. If so, little has been done to change the system; the government merely recoups a portion of the financial fruit of firms' past misdeeds.
First, the strategy recognizes that older people are the main users of medications — not a minority or special population (a fundamental difference between the geriatric and pediatric populations). Therefore, legislative and regulatory frameworks must be designed to ensure that the use of newly approved medicines in the intended population is supported by relevant data on the benefit–risk balance. The strategy's second aim is to improve the availability of information to patients and prescribers, to support safer use of medications.
A 400-Gram Female Infant Delivered at 24 and 4/7 Weeks.
In a 2012 observational study involving Tennessee Medicaid patients, Ray et al.1 quantified the risk of death from cardiovascular causes associated with azithromycin as compared with other antibacterial drugs or nonuse. The study showed that the risks of death, both from any cause and from cardiovascular causes, associated with azithromycin were greater than those associated with amoxicillin. For every 21,000 outpatient prescriptions written for azithromycin, one cardiovascular death occurred in excess of those observed with the same number of amoxicillin prescriptions. The excess risk over amoxicillin varied considerably according to cardiovascular risk factors; the researchers estimated that there was one excess cardiovascular death per 4100 prescriptions among patients at high cardiovascular risk but less than one per 100,000 among patients with lower cardiovascular risk.
Each year in the United States, nearly 500,000 infants — 1 in every 8 — are born prematurely, before 37 weeks of gestation. Despite substantial advances in their care, premature infants face a daunting array of challenges; they are at high risk for death in infancy and face severe and lifelong health problems if they survive.1 The National Institutes of Health (NIH) has a legal and moral responsibility to do research in partnership with scientists and families to optimize the care of these highly vulnerable infants. In recent weeks, a major public debate has arisen regarding a study designed to do just that. And the ramifications go well beyond this one study: the outcome of this debate could affect how we conduct and communicate about critical research on interventions that are within the standard of care for all diseases and conditions.
According to current guidance from the FDA Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, conclusions that two drug products are bioequivalent should reflect significant agreement in pharmacokinetic parameters such that the entire 90% confidence interval associated with the generic-to-reference ratio of geometric means should fall within the bioequivalence limits of 80 to 125%.1 Budeprion XL 300 mg did not meet these criteria in our bioequivalence study, which involved 24 healthy fasting volunteers and used a single-dose crossover design (see graphMean Plasma Concentration of Bupropion (Budeprion XL and Wellbutrin XL) as a Function of Time in 24 Fasting Healthy Volunteers.). The extent of bupropion absorption after the administration of the generic product, as reflected in the area under the curve of the plasma concentrations plotted over time, was 86% of the absorption with the brand-name product (see graph), but the corresponding 90% confidence interval was 77 to 96%. In addition, the mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) observed after the administration of Budeprion XL 300 mg was only 75% of that observed after the administration of Wellbutrin XL 300 mg (90% confidence interval, 65 to 87). In certain study participants, the Cmax and the area under the plasma-concentration curve for Budeprion XL were less than 40% of the values with Wellbutrin XL. The Cmax values for hydroxybupropion, the major active metabolite of bupropion hydrochloride, also failed to meet the FDA bioequivalence criteria.
The use of data extrapolation for the approval of Budeprion XL 300 mg should be considered in historical context. When applications for generic versions of Wellbutrin XL 300 mg began to come under FDA review in 2005, more than 11 million prescriptions for the brand-name product were being written each year. Programs to develop generic bupropion products, and the requisite bioequivalence studies, were important for addressing the widespread need for the treatment of major depressive disorder. At the same time, the FDA and sponsors recognized that bupropion conferred a dose-related risk of seizures, which the agency believed warranted a conservative approach to bioequivalence testing of bupropion in healthy volunteers. Bioequivalence studies that used only the lower strength (150 mg) reflected this conservative approach.
In the Federal District Court in Boston a few days later, GSK pleaded guilty to two criminal counts for sales of misbranded Paxil (paroxetine) and Wellbutrin (bupropion). These drugs are considered misbranded when they are promoted for indications for which they have not been approved by the Food and Drug Administration — the practice commonly known as off-label promotion. Providers cannot be reimbursed for misbranded drugs under federal and state rules. GSK also pleaded guilty to a third crime, failing to report safety data related to Avandia (rosiglitazone). Failing to report safety data violates the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act and leads to serious questions about whether clinicians are basing their decisions on the best evidence. GSK also settled related civil liabilities for these and other drugs.
To further illustrate this point, we compared the time to approval for five innovative, high-risk medical devices available in France, Italy, and the United States (see tableComparison of Time to Market Access for Five Innovative Devices in France, Italy, and the United States.). These case studies indicate that the average time to market access for these devices was 26.3 months in France, 30.8 months in Italy, and 15.3 months in the United States.
Fifty years ago this month, President John F. Kennedy signed into law the Kefauver–Harris Amendments to the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (see photoPresident John F. Kennedy Signing the 1962 Kefauver–Harris Amendments.). With the stroke of a pen, a threadbare Food and Drug Administration (FDA) was given the authority to require proof of efficacy (rather than just safety) before approving a new drug — a move that laid the groundwork for the phased system of clinical trials that has since served as the infrastructure for the production of knowledge about therapeutics in this country. We often remember the Kefauver–Harris Amendments for the thalidomide scandal that drove their passage in 1962. But there is much we have collectively forgotten about Senator Estes Kefauver (D-TN) and his hearings on administered prices in the drug industry. Many parts of the bill left on Congress's cutting-room floor in 1962 — and left out of our memories since — have not disappeared but continue to confront those who would ensure access to innovative, safe, efficacious, and affordable therapeutics.
Even when inclusion and exclusion criteria are set adequately, clinicians and ethics review boards often act as gatekeepers in the recruitment process, creating a selection bias by allowing enrollment of only some of the eligible patients. They are particularly likely to exclude the “older old” and patients with coexisting conditions. Again, every effort should be made to gather evidence in these patients during the premarketing period of drug development. Regulatory guidance for these patients is often lacking, and more work is needed to strengthen the guidance on expectations concerning such patients when guidelines are drafted or revised.
If the corporate fines are too small, the False Claims Act will need to be amended so that a higher percentage of the revenues derived from fraudulent activities is recouped. At the same time, federal law must insist on greater transparency for clinical trial results, so that negative safety data are not hidden from clinicians and regulators.
For both private and public systems in the United States, the pathway to patient access to a device starts with the submission of an application to the FDA. The FDA reviews innovative, high-risk devices for safety and effectiveness (clinical benefit) under the premarket approval (PMA) process, and information on the duration of reviews is publicly available. In fiscal year 2011, the FDA approved 40 applications for PMA. The average review time was 13.1 months, with 8.4 months attributed to FDA review time, and 4.7 months to the time the agency waits for the sponsor to address deficiencies in the application (“sponsor time”).3 CMS provides reimbursement for the majority of devices when they earn FDA approval. For a limited number of devices each year, however, CMS conducts a national coverage determination in response to external requests for validation or for devices that have limited or conflicting evidence of clinical benefit. This process averaged 8.6 months over the past 5 fiscal years.4 Although it is difficult to obtain data on how long private insurers take to make coverage decisions, anecdotal information from private insurers suggests that decisions are made within a few weeks to a few months after FDA approval, depending on the amount and quality of evidence of clinical benefit.
In almost every country, the proportion of people over 60 years of age is growing faster than any other age group, as a result of longer life expectancy and declining fertility rates. In Europe, the median age is already the highest in the world, and in 2050 there are projected to be 88.5 million Americans 65 years old or older — more than double the 40.3 million in the 2010 census.
The process started in 2006, when the EMA provided an opinion on the adequacy of guidance on the elderly regarding medicinal products. In 2011, the agency's Committee for Human Medicinal Products adopted the EMA geriatric medicines strategy,1 marking its commitment to improving our understanding of how best to evaluate the benefit–risk ratio for a medication in older patients.
It's important to provide adequate information to patients and prescribers. That's impossible if there are no good data, but sometimes data included in a drug-development dossier are not adequately reflected in the approval documents. There must be greater focus on the package insert, the regulatory document most widely referred to by the public, which must do a better job of explaining how to take the medication, whether dosage adjustments are advised for older patients, and what is known about use with concomitant medications.
We do not believe that the results of the FDA study should cause concern regarding the overall reliability of the agency's approval process for generic drugs, including the use of extrapolation, when scientifically appropriate. Technical aspects of the Budeprion formulation may have led to the failure of extrapolation in this case. More information on this issue will be generated by the other sponsors' bioequivalence studies. The other 300-mg generic bupropion products do not use the same technology as Budeprion. The use of extrapolation for the approval of multiple strengths of generic drugs, which incorporates science-based reasoning, has been generally successful, and the FDA will continue to refine its approach to this method. The agency will also move more aggressively to perform its own studies when data are urgently needed. We wish to assure the public that drug products that are approved for generic use will continue to be held to high standards of quality, safety, and efficacy.

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